Another study showed that in general subjects had more difficulty distinguishing visual pulses from auditory pulses under hypnosis than while wide awake. This difference was stronger in subjects scoring “thin” on the boundary questionnaire (Kunzendorf and Maurer, 1988-89).

IX. Boundaries and the Brain

If thin versus thick boundaries represents a clear-cut personality dimension and also an aspect of mental state functioning, one would predict that thick versus thin boundary functioning should be detectable on the biological level, in terms of brain function and activity. In simple terms, one might suggest that thin boundaries, relative to thick boundaries, might be associated with more hyperconnectivity, perhaps a more rapid spread of activation in the forebrain, or more “in-between states.” It has not been easy to study boundaries biologically, but a few beginnings have been made. For instance, in examining the polysomnograms (all night sleep records) of persons with very thick or very thin boundaries, we were struck by the fact that people with thick boundaries appeared to have more clear-cut states of waking, NREM sleep, and REM sleep, whereas the records those with thin boundaries showed more in-between states, or difficult-to-define states. Several researchers have had this impression, but it has not yet been validated in a completely blind fashion with agreed-upon definitions of in-between states. Along similar lines, a study by Watson (1985) investigated phasic integrating potentials (PIPs), which are sharp spikes recorded in humans and animals, occurring chiefly during REM sleep—and in fact considered an index of the basic neurophysiology of REM sleep—but occasionally at other times as well. Watson found a strong, positive correlation (r = .52) between the number of PIPs outside of REM sleep and thinness of boundaries. In other words, people with thinner boundaries in a psychological sense, also had thinner boundaries between REM and NREM sleep: the brain activity characteristic of REM sleep often “escaped” into NREM sleep. More work along these lines is definitely needed.

Another small study investigated changes in skin temperature induced by imagining warm or cold scenes (sitting by a fire or holding an ice cube). Subjects who scored thin on the BQ showed a greater actual change in skin temperature in response to these condition (Hartmann 1991). Similarly, in a group of 78 students, those who scored thin on the BQ showed more and longer-lasting autonomic arousal (measured by skin conductance) to an arousal-producing stimulus than other students (Levin and Fireman, 1993).

There has been one study in which a number of neuropsychological tests were administered to persons scoring either very thin or very thick on the BQ. Such tests are generally used to detect brain damage, so of course large differences cannot be expected in these normal subjects. Yet significant differences were found in some interesting areas. Subjects scoring thick showed more evidence of perseveration (continuing in a task or strategy when asked to change) and a more systematic approach to constructing figures. Thin boundary subjects were significantly better at changing strategies or adopting new strategies on a number of tests (Garg and Hartmann 1993). Such differences are suggestive of differences in functioning of the frontal cortex. To the best of our knowledge there have as yet been no studies using imaging techniques such as PET or fMRI, which might be expected to show such differences more clearly.

There are also definite hints of a neuropharmacology and neurochemistry of boundaries, though with no controlled studies as yet. Based on several hundred interviews with research subjects and patients taking a number of psychoactive medications, it is clear that certain medications produce a temporary thickening of boundaries. These include the stimulants and some anti-depressants. Persons with thin boundaries taking such medications repeatedly describe the effects as, “I feel less pulled-apart,” “I feel focused,” “I feel ready to work on things,” “I do less daydreaming,” “I'm more concentrated,” “I feel tougher,” “I can pull my thoughts together better,” “instead of being pulled in ten different directions, I can move in one straight line.” These “thickening” effects appear more prominent in people who have thin boundaries, regardless of whether they are normal subjects in studies, or patients with a variety of diagnoses.

On the other hand, the effects of psychedelic drugs, especially LSD, can be interpreted as a temporary thinning of boundaries, with effects that include synesthesia, vivid changing imagery, dreamlike states, many thoughts or feelings simultaneously. One woman who scored very thin on the BQ said of an LSD experience, “I can see why some people might like or need this sort of loosening or merging, but it's not for me. I'm too much like that anyway, without drugs.”

These clinical or anecdotal results suggest the probable importance of the biogenic amines in boundaries. They suggest especially that increased norepinephrine (and perhaps dopamine) in the cortex can produce a thickening of boundaries, whereas a lack of norepinephrine can produce thinner boundaries. This is consistent with the fact that the lack of norepinephrine in the cortex is one of the clearest characteristics of REM sleep, when most dreaming occurs. All of this can be considered only a small beginning to an investigation of the biology of boundaries.

Overall, thick vs. thin boundaries appears to be a robust personality measure which can be considered an important dimension of personality. This measure is related to, but may in some ways be broader and more useful than, the personality dimension “Openness to Experience.” We have discussed many correlates of thick and thin boundaries, and have also emphasized the relationship of thick and thin boundaries to the continuum running from focused waking thought to dreaming. In this sense, people with thick boundaries spend more time and find themselves more comfortable at the left-hand end of our continuum involved in focused waking. They can be considered “thought people,” whereas the people with thinner boundaries are more comfortable at the other end of the continuum and can be thought of as “dream people,” although these terms are obviously an over-simplification.

X. Broader Implications of Boundaries for Society and Humanity

Beyond the implications for personality, behavior, etc. mentioned above, we would like to discuss here some broader speculations about boundaries in the mind. These are very difficult to investigate in controlled studies, and are offered principally as “food for thought.”

1. Boundaries have a great deal to do with not only the organization of our thinking, but of our societies. For instance, if we think about law, we can see a very thick boundary position: “this is legal, that is illegal,” “this man is either innocent or guilty, that's all there is to it,” as opposed to a more thin boundary position involving shades of grey, mitigating circumstances, partial responsibility, etc.

2. This difference can be seen not only in law but more generally in ethics. The thick position is that there is clear-cut good and clear-cut evil, while the thinner view involves shades of grey and “situation ethics.”

3. Quite likely aesthetics is influenced by boundaries in a somewhat similar way. The thick boundary position would be “this is beautiful, this is ugly; there are rules that tell you exactly which is which; that's all there is to it.” The thin boundary position might be more like, “it's hard to tell, it all depends,” or “I can see something beautiful in this even though it looks ugly overall,” “it's hard to judge,” or perhaps that the artist can transform ugliness into beauty. For instance, Rodin states, “what is commonly called ugliness in nature can in art become full of great beauty” (Gsell, 1971).

4. Other philosophical categories can likewise be seen differently from a thick or thin boundary position. Even basic building blocks of metaphysics such as “real” vs. “unreal” or “true” vs. “false” may be seen in absolute terms, or in a more relativistic fashion. In an overall sense, thick boundaries can be visualized as black vs. white, while thin boundaries can be thought of as various shades of grey.

5. In general, we suggest that thick boundaries are more helpful at times of war, threat, or danger. In fact societies or groups that feel threatened or in constant danger, for whatever reason, tend to develop thicker boundaries. Thin boundaries are more helpful, or perhaps simply more possible, when there is less danger and we can “let go.” Along political lines, it is possible to think of war and peace in very thick boundary terms. A “thick boundary peace” consists of establishing precisely the interests, the duties, the territory of the two sides, and making appropriately clear agreements: “this is mine, this is yours; we'll set up all the walls, regulations, etc. that may be necessary.” A “thin boundary peace” would be more along the lines of joint occupations of areas, joint assemblies, flexibility, a gradual realization that “we” are not really so different from “them,” and eventually a situation where it doesn't matter much to whom a particular bit of territory belongs. This latter position is considered far-out and idealistic by much of the world, but it has occurred for instance within the United States or within Switzerland where there are continuing disagreements between states (or cantons) as to who owns exactly what territory, what river rights, etc., but it is not anything to make war about. It is no longer a matter of life or death. This has also occurred recently in Western Europe , where countries which not long ago were bitter enemies now allow citizens to cross borders without even requiring papers.

6. In an adaptive sense, there are advantages to thin as well as thick boundaries. For the survival of an individual, it is certainly important to be able to concentrate and engage in focused waking activity, but also at times to be able to daydream or dream. For a corporation, it may be useful to have a creative genius/inventor with an initial idea, or several at different times, but then to have more thick boundary types to develop, organize, market, etc. Likewise for society as a whole, it is perhaps optimal to contain and value individuals with thin as well as individuals with thick boundaries.

Table 1. Types of Boundaries

Perceptual boundaries

Between sensory inputs

Sensory focus or “bandwidth”

Around perceptual entities

Boundaries related to thoughts and feelings

Between two thoughts or two feelings

Between thought and feeling

Around thoughts and feelings (free association)

Boundaries between states of awareness or states of consciousness

Sleep-dream-wake boundaries

Between sleep and waking

Between dreaming and waking

In and around the dream

Daydreaming

Boundaries related to play

Boundaries related to memory

Early memories

Recent memories and memory organization

Personal past

Future plans

Boundaries around oneself (body boundaries)

Barriers against stimuli

The skin as a boundary

Posture and musculature as boundaries

Personal space

Interpersonal boundaries

Boundaries between conscious and unconscious and between id, ego, and superego

Defense mechanisms as boundaries

Boundaries related to identity

Sexual identity

Age identity: Between adult and child

Constancy of identity

Group boundaries

Boundaries in organizing one's life

Boundaries in environmental preferences

Boundaries in opinion and judgments

Boundaries in decision making and action

Table 2. Boundary Questionnaire: Examples of Items

Category 1: Sleep/Dream/Waking

1. When I awake in the morning, I am not sure whether I am really awake for a

few minutes.

37. I spend a lot of time daydreaming, fantasizing, or in reverie.

Category 2: Unusual Experiences

61. At times I have felt as if I were coming apart.

100. I have had d éjà vu experiences.

Category 3: Thoughts/Feelings/Moods

15. Sometimes I don't know whether I am thinking or feeling.

74. I can easily imagine myself to be an ani8mal or what it might be like to be an animal.

Category 4: Childhood/Adolescence/Adult

4. I am very close to my childhood feelings.

40. I have definite plans for my future. I can lay out pretty well what I expect

year by year for the next few years.

Category 5: Interpersonal

53. When I get involved with someone, we sometimes get too close.

103. I am a very open person.

Category 6: Sensitivity

6. I am very sensitive to other people's feelings.

42. I am unusually sensitive to loud noises and bright lights.

Category 7: Neat/Exact/Precise

19. I keep my desk and work table neat and well organized.

43. I am good at keeping accounts and keeping track of my money.

Category 8: Edges/Lines/Clothing

32. I like heavy, solid clothing.

44. I like stories that have a definite beginning, middle, and end.

Category 9: Opinions re Children, etc.

33. Children and adults have a lot in common. They should give themselves a

chance to be together without any strict roles.

56. I think a good teacher must remain in part a child.

Category 10: Organizations

10. In an organization, everyone should have a definite place and a specific

role.

58. A good relationship is one in which everything is clearly deefined and

spelled out.

Category 11: Peoples/Nations/Groups

11. People of different nations are basically very much alike.

105. There are no sharp dividing lines between normal people, people with

problems, and people who are considered psychotic or crazy.

Category 12: Beauty/Truth

36. Either you are telling the truth or you are lying; that's all there is to it.

76. When I am in a new situation, I try to find out precisely what is going on

and what the rules are as soon as possible.

————————————————————————————————————

Table 3. Summary of the Factor Analysis (from Harrison et al. 1989)

Factor I-13, Primary Process Thinking:

The 51 items in this factor (all keyed in the ‘thin' boundary direction) describe a person who has many experiences of merging; of fluctuating identity; whose imagery is so vivid it is hard to distinguish from reality; who experiences synaesthesia; the merging of objects with self and with each other. 49 of the items are keyed ‘True'. Theta reliability (see Armor 1973-4) = .92.

Factor II-13, Preference for Explicit Boundaries*:

The 37 items on this factor (36 keyed in the ‘thick' boundary direction) express a preference for clear borders whether it is in nation, cities, houses, pictures, stories, or relationships. A secondary emphasis is on neatness. 34 of the items are keyed ‘True'. Theta = .87.

Factor III-13, Identification with Children:

The 19 items in this factor (18 keyed ‘thin') describe a person who feels, in part, like a child; identifies with children and enjoys them. All of the items are keyed ‘True'. Theta = .75.

Factor IV-13, Fragility:

The 13 items in this factor (12 keyed ‘thin') express sensitivity to hurt, a difficult and complicated childhood and adolescence, fears of falling apart and fears of being overwhelmed by interpersonal involvement. 12 keyed ‘True'. Theta = .75.

Factor V-13, Clairvoyance:

The 16 items on this factor (14 keyed ‘thin') include beliefs in one's clairvoyant powers including knowing others' unexpressed thoughts and feelings, having premonitory dreams, and experiencing very vivid memories and imagery. These items also suggest a strong sense of self-identity from childhood through old age. 15 of the items are keyed ‘True'. Theta = .70.

Factor VI-13, Open-ness:

The 11 items on this factor (all keyed ‘thin') describe a person who believes in being open to the world, trusting others, and disclosing personal experience. 10 of the 11 items are keyed ‘True'. Theta = .70.

Table 3. Summary of Factor Analysis, continued

Factor VII-13, Organized Planfulness*:

The 15 items on this factor (all keyed ‘thick') describe a well-organized, methodical, planful person who keeps track of everything. 13 of the questions are keyed ‘True'. Theta = .67.

Factor VIII-13, Belief in Impenetrable Inter-group Boundaries*:

The 10 items on this factor (all keyed ‘thick') describe a person who believes in inter group segregation whether a group is defined by nationality, race, age, or gender. 8 of the questions are keyed ‘T'. Theta = .65.

Factor IX-13, Flexibility:

The 12 items (10 keyed ‘thin') in this factor have four themes: those of wishing to shape one's own space, job, life; recognizing separateness in close relationships (2 items); appreciating without analyzing (2 items); and believing that people are more the same than they are different. All 12 are keyed ‘True'. Theta = .57.

Factor X-13, Overinvolvement:

The six items in this factor (all keyed ‘thin') are concerned with the difficulty of making transitions from one state to another — whether it is from being asleep to being awake, from listening to music or playing a game to ordinary states of consciousness. 5 of the 6 items are keyed ‘True'. Theta = .57.

Factor XI-13, Preference for Simple Geoemetric Forms*:

The 5 items in this factor (all keyed ‘thick') describe a person who likes straight lines, and would like to work as a navigator or an engineer. All 5 items are keyed ‘True'.; Theta = .56

Factor XII-13, Isolation of Affect*:

Two of the 5 items in this factor (all keyed ‘thick') describe a person who explicitly believes in the segregation of thinking from feeling and facors rationality over emotion. 3 of the questions are keyed ‘True'. Theta = .56.

Factor XIII-13, Uninterpretable.

Figure 1. A wake-dreaming continuum

Focused Looser, Reverie Dreaming

Waking thought Less-structured free association

Waking thought daydreaming

What Percepts: fewer words, signs, almost pure

dealt with? Math symbols more visual-spatial imagery

signs, words imagery

How? logical relationship — less logic, more noting or almost pure

If A then B picturing of similarities, picture -

More metaphor metaphor

Self- highly self-reflective — less self-reflective, in “typical

reflection: “I know I am sitting here more “caught up” in the dreams”

reading.” process, the imagery total thereness,

no self-reflection

Boundaries: solid divisions, less rigid categorization, merging

Categorizations, thinner boundaries condensation

thick boundaries loosening of

categories,

thin boundaries

Processing: relatively serial; net functions chiefly net functions more as an

as a feed-forward net. auto-associative net.

Subsystems: activity chiefly within structured activity less within , across or outside of structured subsystems.

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